Disciplines
• Women's And Gender Studies
Women and religion: Over millennia,
women's lives have often been defined by religion.
The earliest religions are believed to have
revered female fertility and to have worshipped
goddesses. Later religions brought polytheistic
male and female gods and the idea of a male
supreme deity. Religions have brought with
them proscriptions for female behavior, rules
about treating women and views of women that
have ranged from empowering and to devaluing.
Religious beliefs have been behind many of
women's oppressions as well as advances. Beliefs
about women's roles in religious leadership,
worship and ideology of the divine have impacted
women's experiences through the present day.
Demographics: Women
have outnumbered men as participants in
religious communities for decades. This
domination in numbers brings up several
issues that could be studied, such as whether
congregational worship is more attractive
to women than men and why, or what experiences
within a religious community draw women
and keep them committed to the affiliation.
Researchers could also study what social,
economic, professional, cultural, spiritual
or personal benefits are obtained by women
through religious affiliation.
The figures also highlight
women's roles in many aspects of church
membership and leadership. The number of
women in church leadership in the U.S. -
as well as women's attendance and graduation
from seminaries - has grown consistently
in recent decades. The 2006 election of
Katharine Jefferts Schori as the first female
presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church,
U.S.A., raised much interest in the concept
of female religious leadership in the top
ranks. Her election was hailed by some and
deemed divisive by others.
Gender roles: Women
remain in a minority at the highest religious
leadership positions, however. Southern
Baptist churches do not allow women senior
pastors and the Roman Catholic Church does
not ordain women. Other sects of Christianity
such as the Pentecostal movement have long
encouraged women to lead in ministry. Mainline
Protestant churches welcome more female
pastors each year and some say the future
may show a female-dominated clergy in these
denominations, though statistics show women
are most often at small churches and are
paid less than male pastors at larger churches.
Researchers could study
which roles women generally fill in religious
organizations and analyze why those roles
appeal to women, or whether there are structures
in place - official or unofficial - that
prescribe certain roles for women. The Center
on Religion & the Professions focuses on religions' impact on the
workplace and professionals.
Those interested in women's
studies could partner with the Center to
look at the workplace climate of a religious
setting. Do women pastor differently than
men? Are there different sets of expectations?
Do senior pastors of different genders have
more in common than senior and assistant
pastors in general? Does gender shape the
role, or does the role shape the professional
regardless of gender? What would women in
leadership positions in a setting such as
a church or synagogue want colleagues and
the public to know about religious leadership,
or about being a woman?
Some in the Christian church
movement have criticized churches in recent
years for placing more emphasis on love
than social justice, implying that women
are more concerned about love, and because
of their domination in numbers in church,
churches tend to emphasize that idea more
than justice.
On the other hand, women
involved in religions have been key players
in many social justice issues, from abolition
of slavery to global outreach, to the peace
movement. Some think female religious leaders
are more likely to engage in political and
civil issues. Research that attempts to
build bridges in church communities could
attempt to dispel stereotypes while addressing
what might be legitimate needs among parishioners
- a broader message and ministry not defined
in terms of gender. The role of women in
religious communities is particularly strong,
and studying both changes and impacts are
in some ways a study of society itself.
Religion and rights:
Historically, much of the oppression women
have faced came as a result of policies
within churches and organized religion.
Forced marriage, oppressive ideas about
sexuality, quashing of rights to speak,
and lack of stake in family leadership are
all issues women have faced through the
centuries. On the other hand, research in
recent decades has shown that women who
are involved in religion report higher levels
of happiness. Researchers could examine
this dichotomy to discover core values held
by women who choose to affiliate with a
religion and those who do not. Researches
could look at what specifically and indirectly
makes women happier when their lives are
tied to religious beliefs and settings.
They could also look at how much religious
oppression colors women's views about religion
in the present day and whether it affects
their choice to be or not be religious.
While religion can be oppressive
to individual and gender rights, religions
have also helped pave the way for social
changes and civil rights. The Christian
Apostle Paul wrote that "… women
should remain silent in the churches. They
are not allowed to speak, but must be in
submission, as the law says" (1 Corinthians
14:34), but also made the point that there
is no "male nor female, for you are
all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians
3:28) and instructed husbands and wives
to have mutual care for each other. The
Christian church's prohibitions against
divorce, which may have bound women into
marriages against their will, was also designed
to protect women from finding themselves
cast out of a home. The Protestant Reformation
helped change paradigms about views of women
by first emphasizing the value of the individual,
and his or her own value in the eyes of
God, a key underlying idea to the exploration
of human rights.
Another example where rights
are debated is within Islam, which, based
on cultural interpretations, is known to
place restrictions on women in terms of
what they wear, where they can go, and with
whom they can associate. Women are banned
from driving in Saudi Arabia, and in nations
such as Afghanistan are forced by law or
social/religious pressure to dress and behave
in certain ways, including prohibitions
against education. However, Islam is also
known for granting rights to women long
before many Western countries. Islam dictates
that women, whether single or married, are
individuals in their own right, with control
over their financial affairs, and the right
to own and dispose of property and earnings.
A woman keeps her own family name when marrying.
Islam's prophet Muhammad is quoted to have
said that the "best among you are those
who are best to their wives."
In the United States, the
effort to obtain the vote for women, with
the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920,
was successful in part due to the fact that
men and women of the time generally accepted
the belief that women were more moral and
pious than men. Though the battle for the
vote was also fought on civil rights grounds,
it won over many voters who believed that
women with a vote could help temper the
evil in society, such as alcohol and other
immoralities, to make the country more pious.
Women were active in the temperance movement,
which resulted in 18th Amendment, which
prohibited alcohol from 1920 to 1933. Earlier,
women's rights advocates also fought for
abolition of slavery and some were active
in efforts to achieve universal suffrage.
Work with the Center could
explore the plight of women around the world
who suffer oppression related to religion,
as well as what women acting in faith and
secularly are doing to ensure rights for
women. Education can teach about the past
and present conditions in religions that
oppress, as well as examine where religious
beliefs and cultural mores begin and end
in an attempt to communicate a nuanced understanding
of the role religion plays in the lives
of women. Those aiming to understand religious
teachings as they relate to women can compare
teachings and practice and their impacts.
Reproductive issues:
Women's issues, reproductive rights and
religious beliefs clash over issues such
as abortion, which is hotly debated in religious
communities. Abortion proponents frame it
as a "woman's right to choose"
(control over her own body or whether to
bear a child), while abortion opponents
frame it as "taking a human life"
(a religious and moral sin). Some could
argue that the two sides are having different
conversations about different issues. Research
that attempts to bridge those gaps could
be useful for all sides. They may not agree,
but they might understand each other's positions
more clearly, in ways that inform each side's
viewpoint.
Birthrates in general are
impacted by religious beliefs. For example,
in scripture holy for Christians and Jews,
believers are urged to "Be fruitful,
and multiply, and replenish the earth"
(Genesis 1:28), implying that it is holy
and mandated to have many children. But
in the 19th century in the United States,
the Second Great Awakening - a period of
evangelistic revival - was tied to development
of the "Protestant work ethic."
The belief system attributed piety to an
ethic of delayed gratification and abstinence,
limiting family size for economic self-interest
in the industrial society. Having fewer
children gave women more freedom to pursue
additional interests.
Declining birthrates among
the Jewish faith are another trend. The
number of Jews in the U.S. is declining,
with the birthrate now below replacement
levels. The number of children raised in
Jewish homes is also dropping through Jews
marrying outside the faith or not formally
affiliating with their faith tradition.
The decline in Jewish women's birthrate
has also been tied to the fact the Jewish
women are statistically likely to marry
late and delay childbearing because of education
and careers. Survival is a major theme of
Judaism, which has prompted some Jewish
women to embrace single motherhood or older
parenthood using reproductive technology
to help them have more children. This trend
has also created a demand for Jewish donor
eggs and surrogates, and prompted some Jewish
congregations to consider how far they are
willing to go to preserve the faith.
Another issue relates to
health access and religious beliefs. In
the U.S., the Roman Catholic Church holds
16 percent of community hospital beds. Catholic-affiliated
hospitals have strict rules about services
(such as contraception and other procedures)
that cannot be done due to moral objections.
Congress and some states have allowed "conscience"
clauses that allow hospitals to opt out
of certain treatments on moral grounds,
even if they receive public funds. Pressure
is rising on both sides of the reproductive
rights debate to broaden or limit the scope
of such laws. It raises the question of
when religious freedom trumps patients'
rights to health care. Access to reproductive
services could be curtailed in many communities,
particularly in areas where health care
is limited. But religious liberties guaranteed
in the Constitution could be threatened
if laws are passed that infringe on religious
organizations' right to uphold their beliefs.
Gender issues
The idea of male Catholic
priests being allowed to marry is a major
issue facing the Catholic Church within
the U.S., as some have criticized celibacy
as an outdated policy that encourages abuse.
Also in the debate is whether to ordain
women to help swell the dwindling ranks
of Catholic priests.
Bitter disputes about the
ordination of gays and lesbians in the clergy
have gripped different sects of the American
church the past decade. These debates tend
to center on interpretation of religious
text and tenets, some held for centuries.
While this might seem to be purely a religious
debate, American history has shown that
how these debates resolve in religious settings
tends to influence how policies are shaped
within the political arena. Education and
understanding of the true implications of
these debates is worthwhile to the scholar
interested in these issues.
Just as women dominate
in numbers as far as religious involvement,
recent surveys show men are less likely
to worship at services or participate in
affiliated activities. Some say this is
the result of a "feminization"
of Jesus. Churches are trying to figure
out ways to get more men involved in religion
by tying faith to traits traditionally associated
with men.
Issues today: Researchers
could study the role of religion in both
oppressing women around the globe and behind
organizations reaching out to women affected
by the AIDS crisis and female-related health
problems related to poverty and women's
minimized importance in society. Women in
the U.S. may explore the ethical dilemmas
of unbalance in opportunities for women
in the U.S. and some Third World Nations.
Studies could look at changing demographics,
the roles of woman in leadership roles,
such as how being a woman affects being
a clergy leader, or how being religious
affects secular leadership.
There has been an increase
in the U.S. of practicing Wicca and other
Earth-based religions that worship or place
value on the feminine. Researchers could
look at what this means, both for "traditional"
faiths and society as a whole, as well as
for the women who practice these neo-ancient
religions. How are they practiced differently
in the 21st century? Why?
Researchers could look
at how religion is practiced in the U.S.
and other countries and how national, cultural
or legal practices affect women and do or
don't reflect the intent of religion. Those
interested in women's studies can work with
the Center to foster awareness of women's
history and role in the workplace, which
is related to religious beliefs and roles.
We could study how women experience faith
and how it impacts their lives, history
and the future.
Journal
of Feminist Studies in Religion
Journal
of Women & Religion
Culture
and Religion
Biblical
Intrepretation
Fieldwork
in Religion
American
Academy of Religion Syllabi Search
Women
and Religion
Dr. Ross S. Kraemer
University of Pennsylvania
Women
and Religion in Antiquity
Prof. Carrie Schroeder
Ithaca College
Women,
Religion and Social Change
Athabasca University
Christian Business Women’s Fellowship
Christian Academics
Fellowship of Christian Business & Professional Women
Jewish Professional Women’s Network
Women in Christian Media
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.
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